We have applied many other methods in advanced surface analysis to these problems, with an emphasis on photoemission. These methods include X-ray and ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy, near edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy, X-ray surface scattering, secondary ion mass spectrometry, transmission and scanning electron microscopy, transmission and reflection infrared spectroscopy, linear and nonlinear optical absorption of films, quartz crystal microbalance measurement of film deposition or removal, and X-ray diffraction.